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Link - KEYWORD SEARCH RESULTS
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6 - PRIMARY Keyword matches for ARTICLE
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As continua to locate theory and practice
Information ---------x--------- Experience
Non-Reflective---------x--------- Reflective
Individual ---------x--------- Social
To identify learning pathways
*Non - linear
*Diverse potentialities
Kolb - Experiential
Cycle of
*Experience
*Reflection
*Theory formation
*Testing theory in practice
Barnett 1990 An Idea of Higher Education
*Deep understanding of knowledge
*Radical critique of claims
*Critique in the company of others
*Independent inquiry.
*Self reflection.
Laurillard - Conversational Framework
*Tutor describes concepts
*Tutor-student dialogue
*Tutor adapts concepts
*Tutor sets task
*Student completes task
*Dialogue on action
*Student reflection
Wenger - Communities of Practice
*Mutual engagement
-Doing things together
-Community
*Joint Enterprise
-Negotiated enterprise
-Mutual accountability and interpretation
*Shared repertoire
-Artifacts
-Historical events
Planning the Design Process
*Outline the activity and outcomes
*Scope contextual details
*List potential mini-activities
*Map to potential tools and resources
*Select
*Overall profile
*(CM Added Determine Points of Evaluation)
Evaluation pointed to need for more
*Experiential learning
*Reflection
*Use of group experience
*Importance of knowledge base
(also see http://www.ulster.ac.uk/staffdev/grainne.pdf - similar info - different type of presentation)
*Open dialogue and co-operation (freed from unnecessary direction)
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Networks are constantly forming. As a dynamic process, networks can aggregate into larger structures (a network of networks). Networks can also be deconstructed into smaller structures. For example, everyone has some type of personal learning network. When an individual works for an organization, they bring their network with them, combining as part of the larger network of the corporation. In the course of our daily lives, we move among numerous networks. We are constantly acting upon and being acted upon.
Recognizing that we are continually moving in and out of networks provides an important starting point for rethinking corporate and higher education. Instead of seeing the artificial construct of a program or course as the point of learning, we can view the process of iving life as a constant learning process. As we acquire new nodes, form new connections, aggregate into larger networks, or deconstruct into smaller structures, we are continually learning and adapting - interacting dynamically with the world around us.
The information system underlying network creation includes:
* Data - a raw element or small meaning neutral element
* Information - data with intelligence applied
* Knowledge - information in context and internalized
* Meaning - comprehension of the nuances, value, and implications of knowledge
While networks are simple in nature, numerous elements impact the flow and dynamics of connection creation. Elements and characteristics of a network include:
* Content (data or information)
* Interaction (tentative connection forming)
* Static nodes (stable knowledge structure)
* Dynamic nodes (continually changing based on new information and data)
* Self-updating nodes (nodes which are tightly linked to their original information source, resulting in a high level of currency (i.e. up to date)
* Emotive elements (emotions that influence the prospect of connection and hub formations).
Connections are the key to network learning. Yet not every connection has equal weight and influence in the entire structure. Connections can be strengthened based on a number of factors:
* Motivation
* Emotions
* Exposure
* Patterning
* Logic
* Experience
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Bridging Theory and Practice: Developing Guidelines to Facilitate the Design of Computer-based Learning Environments
This paper examines the paradigm shift that has occurred in the design of computer-based learning, and considers the constructivist theory that has guided the development of recent design goals in online environments. Unlike the current constricting principles that have been developed to guide instructional designers, it offers suggestions for the adaptation of modest and generic guidelines that can be flexibly applied, allowing the designer to address the needs of each content-specific situation creating an unbounded, open experience for the learner, and the expression of true constructivist ideals in the online learning environment.
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The Theory Into Practice Database
Greg Kearsley
The Theory Into Practice (TIP) database contains descriptions of over theories relevant to human learning and instruction. Each description includes the following sections: overview, scope/application, example, principles, and references. Relationships between theories are identified by highlighted text within articles. These relationships can be connections between specific theories or to concepts that underlie a number of theories. The theories are also indexed according to content domain and type of learning.
Theories were selected for inclusion in the database based upon their relevance to some aspect of human learning and instruction. All theories come from published literature (English language only). Theories that focus on animal learning, neuropsychology, learning disabilities or teaching strategies are not included. The database also does not include theories of learning that have limited scientific support (see Druckman & Swets, ; Druckman & Bjork, ) or are primarily philosophical in nature (e.g ., Dewey, Freire, Illich, Polanyi).
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Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses
What are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of using certain theoretical approaches to instructional design?
Behaviorism
Weakness -the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. - A worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system.
Strength - the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal. - W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy planes, a response which one would hope became automatic.
Cognitivism
Weakness - the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way, or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet on one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer.
Strength - the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency. - Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems.
Constructivism
Weakness - in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action may cause problems. Imagine the fun Revenue Canada would have if every person decided to report their taxes in their own way - although, there probably are some very "constructive" approaches used within the system we have.
Strength - because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation.
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Behaviorism: concerned with stimulus-response theories that define learning as establishing an associative link between a particular stimulus and a particular response.
Cognitivism: arose from a reaction to behaviorism because they felt that behaviorism's emphasis on the link between a stimulus and a response was not sufficient to account for all human activities.
Constructivism: learning is an active process of constructing, rather than acquiring, knowledge and that the goal of instruction is to support that construction rather than trying to transmit knowledge.
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16 - SECONDARY Keyword matches for LEARNING THEORIES
Click on any Title to go to that site
Click on any Primary Key to search by that keyword
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If you’ve spent years learning to use Instructional Systems Design processes to create e-Learning, the slight anarchy inherent in constructivist design may leave you feeling a little dizzy. Before you decide that constructivism has nothing to offer your organization, read this article to get a more complete perspective on the techniques and the resources available.
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How social network analysis informs design and facilitation for online learning
Conclusions
The egonets from the social network analysis and the follow-up interviews seem to indicate quite strongly that participating in a variety of group tasks, in which grouping is varied, increases learning by allowing participants to interact more intimate and activity oriented conversations serves to encourage closeness. However, whether or not feeling closer to a community member makes it more likely you will learn from them seems to be dependent on a number of factors.
One factor is the personal learning agenda that each member brings to a community. These personal learning goals appear to impact greatly on the degree of closeness a member wants or needs in order to meet their goals. In other words, the value proposition the community of practice holds for each member can be very different and while personal learning outcomes may be met, closeness may not be needed at all in order to achieve these goals.
. . . Whether or not participants knew people coming in to the workshop does not seem to be a key factor in their learning. It is more likely that their personal learning agendas drive the nature and number of the relationships they form in meeting these agendas. The workshop may be an opportunity for participants to extend relationships they have prior to the workshop, but it appears that the design of the workshop may equalize previous relationships. Again, this is dependent upon each member's personal learning agenda.
Another key factor impacting on learning and closeness is the degree of choice participants are given. In this workshop, participants can choose the task for their household, they can choose the subject and outcomes for their project and they can also choose whom they will work with in these two small groupings. This, coupled with the fact that the workshop involves them in a number of simultaneous activities with different member’s over a short time frame, makes for an intensive experience which engenders closeness and at the same time increases the likelihood participant's will meet their personal learning goals. Within such a context it is perhaps difficult extricate the exact nature of the relationship between individual activities, learning and closeness.
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- What is Constructivism? (Funderstanding)
- What is Constructivism? (Arts in Education, UWNY)
- What is Constructivism? (On Purpose Associates)
- What is Constructivism? (Michael Mahoney)
- Constructivist Learning Theory (J.L. Bencze)
- Constructivist Learning Theory (Arts in Education, UWNY)
- Classroom Compass Volume , Number : Constructivism (Southwest Education Development Lab)
- Cognitive Approach (Judith Conway)
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The Theory of Constructivism
The basic tenets of constructivism are that:
* Knowledge is constructed from and shaped by experience.
* Students must take an active role and assume responsibility for their learning.
* Learning is a collaborative process and students create their own meaning from obtaining multiple perspectives.
* Learning should occur in a realistic setting.
* Learners should choose their own path through content and activities.
* Content should be presented holistically, not broken into separate smaller tasks.
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IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERACTION, COURSE DESIGN, AND EVALUATION IN DISTANCE EDUCATION.
Moore made the distinction between three types of interaction in distance education: learner-teacher, learnercontent, and learner-learner. Learner-content is the fundamental form of interaction on which all education is based. Learning occurs when learners interact with some content whether learning is defined as change in behavior, creation or modification of cognitive structures, or construction of shared meaning. Content is found in books, objects from the environment, abstract ideas, videotapes, computer programs, and websites, among others. The learner-teacher interaction can take the form of the teacher delivering instruction, lecturing, providing feedback, and encouraging the learner. In addition, learners might be interacting with the teacher by asking questions, submitting homework, and discussing problems with the teacher. The learner-learner interaction is what Moore called "a challenge to our thinking and practice. Learners collaborate with peers on projects, assignments, discussions, exchange ideas, and interact on topics that relate to the course.
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It is generally acknowledged that constructivism constitutes a very important, although often contested, practical and theoretical perspective in current education research. A first `mild' (or ` . trivial') version of constructivism originating in the work of Piaget holds that knowledge is actively constructed by the learner and not passively transmitted by the educator. In addition, there is the radical constructivism of von Glasersfeld , in which cognition is considered adaptive in the sense that it is based on and constantly modified by a learner's experience. Beyond that, there is the social constructivist version of Vygotsky, who in an effort to challenge Piaget's ideas developed a fully cultural psychology stressing the primary role of communication and social life in meaning formation and cognition. The latter version of constructivism is accentuated by theories of sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK), which argue that all knowledge is a social construct in the frame of science and technology studies.
The purpose of this paper is to present a brief review of the various streams of constructivism in studies of education.
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The Conversation Theory developed by G. Pask originated from a cybernetics framework and attempts to explain learning in both living organisms and machines. The fundamental idea of the theory was that learning occurs through conversations about a subject matter which serve to make knowledge explicit. Conversations can be conducted at a number of different levels: natural language (general discussion), object languages (for discussing the subject matter), and metalanguages (for talking about learning/language).
In order to facilitate learning, Pask argued that subject matter should be represented in the form of entailment structures which show what is to be learned. Entailment structures exist in a variety of different levels depending upon the extent of relationships displayed (e.g., super/subordinate concepts, analogies).
The critical method of learning according to conversation theory is "teachback" in which one person teaches another what they have learned. Pask identified two different types of learning strategies: serialists who progress through an entailment structure in a sequential fashion and holists who look for higher order relations.
Scope/Application:
Conversation theory applies to the learning of any subject matter. Pask ( ) provides an extensive discussion of the theory applied to the learning of statistics (probability).
Example:
Pask ( , Chapter ) discusses the application of conversation theory to a medical diagnosis task (diseases of the thyroid). In this case, the entailment structure represents relationships between pathological conditions of the thyroid and treatment/tests. The student is encouraged to learn these relationships by changing the parameter values of a variable (e.g., iodine intake level) and investigating the effects.
Principles
. To learn a subject matter, students must learn the relationships among the concepts.
. Explicit explanation or manipulation of the subject matter facilitates understanding (e.g., use of teachback technique).
. Individual's differ in their preferred manner of learning relationships (serialists versus holists).
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That is, technologies should be used to keep students active, constructive, collaborative, intentional, complex, contextual, conversational, and reflective. What do these mean?
* Active: Learners are engaged by the learning process in mindful processing of information where they are responsible for the result. In natural learning situations, learners and performers of all ages, without the intervention of formal instruction, can acquire sophisticated skills and advanced knowledge about what they are learning. In all of these situations, learners are actively manipulating the objects and tools of the trade and learning by reflecting on what they have done.
* Constructive: Learners integrate new ideas with prior knowledge in order to make sense or make meaning or reconcile a discrepancy, curiosity, or puzzlement. They construct their own meaning for different phenomena. The models that they build to explain things are simple and unsophisticated at first, but with experience, support, and reflection, they become increasingly complex. As we explained earlier, we believe that it is impossible for learners to know what the teacher knows. They can only know what they know, so they should be supported in the process of coming to know.
* Collaborative: Learners naturally work in learning and knowledge building communities, exploiting each others skills while providing social support and modeling and observing the contributions of each member. Humans naturally seek out others to help them to solve problems and perform tasks.
* Intentional: All human behavior is goal directed (Schank, ). That is, everything that we do is intended to fulfill some goal. That goal may be simple, like satiating hunger or getting more comfortable, or it may be more complex, like developing new career skills. When learners are actively and willfully trying to achieve a cognitive goal (Scardamalia & Bereiter), they think and learn more. Learning environments need to support learners in articulating what their goals are in any learning situation.
* Complex: The greatest intellectual sin that we teachers commit is to oversimplify most ideas in order to make them more easily transmittable to learners. In addition to stripping ideas out of their normal contexts, we distill ideas to their simplest form so that students will more readily learn them. However, the world is not a reliable and simple place. Problems are multiple components and multiple perspectives and cannot be solved in predictable ways like the canned problems at the end of textbook chapters. We need to engage students in solving complex and ill-structured problems as well as simple problems (Jonassen, in press). Unless learners are required to engage in higher order thinking, they will develop oversimplified views of the world.
* Contextual: A great deal of recent research has shown that learning tasks that are situated in some meaningful real world task or simulated in some case-based or problem based learning environment are not only better understood, but also are more consistently transferred to new situations. Rather than abstracting ideas in rules that are memorized and then applied to other canned problems, we need to teach knowledge and skills in real life, useful contexts and providing new and different contexts for learners to practice using those ideas.
* Conversational: Learning is inherently a social, dialogical process (Duffy & Cunningham, ). That is, given a problem or task, people naturally seek out opinions and ideas form others. Technologies can support this conversational process by connecting learners across town or across the world. When learners become part of knowledge building communities both in class and outside of school, they learn that there are multiple ways of viewing the world and multiple solutions to most of life's problems.
* Reflective: Learners should be required by technology-based learning to articulation wha
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I. Introduction
II. What is E-Learning?
III. Efficacy of E- Learning.
IV. Market Environment
Flawed Assumptions of Early E-learning.
Successes and Failures in E-learning .
Costs and Benefits of E-learning .
Competitors.
Implications of the Market Assessment:
V. Augsburg ‘Fit’.
VI. Recommendations
. Embrace the Concept of a Hybrid Environment for Learning
. Focus Initial Efforts in Three Areas .
. Develop Plans for Other Areas to Move to a Hybrid Environment
. Faculty Support for Development of Teaching Skills in all Mediums
. Expansion of Student Support.
. Future Implications of a Hybrid Environment.
Development Process for Online Courses
Online Courses Approval Guidelines.
Online Teaching Best Practices .
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The pages of guidelines use and promote a systematic approach to training, an approach that thousands of organisations take because of its logic, simplicity and practicality. A systematic approach to training:
~groups and organises training functions into logical and manageable steps;
~has built-in checkpoints so that an organisation can gauge whether its training is effective in accomplishing its goals or if it is making efficient use of its time and
resources;
~results in cost-effective, practical training that directly supports the work performance of employees.
Appendices
: Types and Forms of Questions for Surveys and Interviews
: Checklist for Formatting Questions
: Checklist for the NGT Leader
: The Analyst's Primer for Analysing Work Performance
: Planning Your Needs Analysis Worksheet
: Completing a Task Analysis
: Planning Your Evaluation Strategy
: A Framework for Evaluating Training
: Verbs at a Glance
: Some Typical Standards for Learning Objectives
: A Checklist for Writing Learning Objectives
: Bloom's Taxonomy
: A Training Design and Development Model
: Guidelines for Increasing the Effectiveness of an Instructional Design
: Training Design and Development Worksheets
: A Practical Guide to Classroom Methods
: Quality Standards for Developing Training Materials
: Training Design Checklist
: Tips for Using Climate-setting Exercises Effectively
: A Checklist for Developing a Job Aid
: Degree of Difficulty
: Case Study Design Procedures
: Case Study Development Checklist
: Guidelines for Developing Role Plays
: How to Prepare and Use Flipcharts
: Use of Overhead Transparencies and Flipcharts
: A Guide for Using Films and Videos
: Worksheet for Planning the Validation Strategy
: The Key Skills of the Instructor/Facilitator
: Guidelines for Giving Feedback
: A Leader's Guide to Discussion
: Techniques for Asking Questions
: Stimulating Discussion
: Questioning and the Learning Cycle
: Sample Learner Reaction Sheets
: Sample Pre-test and Post-test
: A Dozen Ways to Improve Training Transfer
: The Physical Learning Environment
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Prescriptive Models
Behaviorist
Prescribed Methodologies
Modern Approaches
Phenomenological Models
Cognitivist
Constructivist
Postmodern Approaches
Comparative Summaries
Behaviorism vs
Cognitivism vs
Constructivism
Models, like myths and metaphors, help us to make sense of our world. Whether it is derived from whim or from serious research, a model offers its user a means of comprehending an otherwise incomprehensible problem. An instructional design model gives structure and meaning to an I.D. problem, enabling the would-be designer to negotiate her design task with a semblance of conscious understanding. Models help us to visualize the problem, to break it down into discrete, manageable units.
The value of a specific model is determined within the context of use. Like any other instrument, a model assumes a specific intention of its user. A model should be judged by how it mediates the designer's intention, how well it can share a work load, and how effectively it shifts focus away from itself toward the object of the design activity.
Models, like other tools, shape the consciousness of those who use them. The tool molds the wielder who molds the tool, ad infinitum. Our models frame the reality we impose on the world and the experience that is forged out of their use brings us to higher levels of understanding about the design problem, but only within the framework of the specific models we adopt.
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Development
There are two main methods for presenting the instructional content to learners (Merrienboer, ):
* Deductive - having the learners work from general information to examples
* Inductive - giving the learners examples to abstract
In addition, there are two main approaches for helping the learners to learn:
* Inquisitory - having the learners find examples or general information
* Expository - explicitly giving examples and general information.
Examples are representations of real life, such as case studies, models, scenarios, etc. While general information are principles, concepts, relationships between pieces of information, etc.
Which of course leads to four basic instructional strategies:
* Deductive-inquisitory: present general information and have the learners find and produce examples
* Deductive-expository: present general information and then present some examples
* Inductive-inquisitory: present examples and then have the learners abstract the general information
* Inductive-expository: present examples and then present the general information
Normally, the best method for building deep knowledge structures (having the most viscosity) is the inductive-inquisitory strategy. However, it is normally the most time-consuming (lacking in velocity). This is why training developers often become experts in the subject matter -- while creating the concepts, principles, procedures, etc. for the training program, they produce within themselves deep knowledge structures; while in turn, the users of these training design products only produce surface knowledge.
The deductive-inquisitory is also quite good but requires a bit more work as the designer normally has to ensure the learners have both the basic knowledge and general information to support the deductive aspect of it.
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Sensing and Intuitive Perception, Visual and Verbal Input, Inductive and Deductive Organization, Active and Reflective Processing, Sequential and Global Understanding
The thrust of Tobias's study is that introductory science courses are responsible for driving off many students in the second tier. The negative features of the courses she cites include their failure to motivate interest in science by establishing its relevance to the students' lives and personal interests; relegation of students to almost complete passivity in the classroom; emphasis on competition for grades rather than cooperative learning; and focus on algorithmic problem-solving as opposed to conceptual understanding
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This site is designed for visually oriented learners. It has mindmaps (study aids) which will help you understand the whole picture of complicated subjects. These enjoyable and fun maps can be used as memory triggers during study. As a visual learner, I use Mindmaps as a tool for more complete learning. You can use them too!
This site has Learning Theories and Theorist's study aids, Accelerated Learning Mindmaps, and extensive links to interesting theory sites.
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The brain and intelligence, adult learning theory and learning styles, and the history of adult continuing education.
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Using Constructivism in Technology-Mediated Learning: Constructing Order out of the Chaos in the Literature
Constructivism learning theories are, essentially, a branch of philosophy that tries to understand how we construct knowledge. Constructivism theorists ask the following questions (Hofer and Pintrch, ; Jonasson, ):
What does it mean to know something?
How do we come to know it?
How does this knowledge influence our thinking processes?
The constructivists argue that the `systematic' process offered by instructionists is a problem. According to constructivists, there is nothing systematic about how we learn or construct knowledge. Rather, constructivists believe that knowledge is constructed socially using language (Vygotsy, ) and everyone has different social experiences resulting in multiple realities (Jonassen, ). Constructing knowledge, then, is a socio-linguistic process where there is gradual advancement of understandings built upon previous knowledge resulting in multiple dimensions of the truth (Spiro & Jehng, ; Sprio, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, ). If we accept the assumptions that there are multiple realities of what the truth must be and learning is based on prior knowledge, educators will need to acknowledge that they cannot assume that all their learners will understand new information in the same way (as the instructionists assume). Based on this assumption, constructivists argue that educators will need to understand that learners will require a variety of different experiences to advance to different kinds and levels of understanding. Thus we must bring our learners' prior knowledge to the forefront if they are to apply their current understandings to new situations in order to construct new knowledge. To achieve this, educators need to spend time understanding learner's current perspectives and, based on this information, incorporate learning activities that have real world relevance for each learner.
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